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From February to May fresh ant eggs are in season. Sold in the market, sometimes with emerging insects squirming like a chick from its shell, these are popular protein bursts for fried eggs, soups and watery curries. Unfortunately, they slightly resemble maggots, but without the squirming. More textural, than actual flavor, they literally burst in the mouth. Also available canned, but to its detriment.

VN: Because of its cheaper cost in Vietnam, arrowroot is more popular than cornstarch (cornflour) to thicken sauces. Unlike cornstarch, arrowroot thins after boiling.
(see also Tapioca)

VN: Vietnamese balm is stronger than Western Lemon balm, tasting both of mint and fragrant citrus. Substitute with perilla or peppermint.

Both tiny sugar bananas, about the length of a long finger, and standard sized bananas are eaten in Thailand. Generally speaking, the smaller the sweeter.

VN: Deep magenta-colored banana flowers are available in select Oriental grocers. Use tough outer leaves or petals as a serving bowl, while the inner petals are eaten both cooked and raw. (Discard the sticky immature banana shoots when peeling back the leaves.) Soak raw petals in acidulated water, to prevent discoloration and to tenderize.

While not essential to Thai cooking -- aluminum foil easily substitutes -- the ubiquitous presence of banana plants in Thailand makes this a natural choice for wrapping food parcels -- both before, after and during cooking.

VN: The ubiquitous presence of banana plants in Southeast Asia makes this a natural choice for wrapping food parcels. Wipe the leaves before using, and tear or cut into the desired size. To soften prior to folding, run briefly over a gas flame until the milky or waxy under-side becomes shiny. Alternatively, use plastic wrap or foil.

There are three principal basil varieties in Thailand, sweet, holy and lemon. The most common, sweet Thai basil, has smooth green leaves, and often sports tiny purple flowers. It tastes less of aniseed or licorice than Western sweet basil. This is the most versatile, used in curries, stir fries and curry pastes, plus as a garnish.

VN: More fiery than Western basil, yet tasting less of aniseed or licorice. It is the most versatile of three Asian basil varieties, rau que (or bai horapa in Thai) is ubiquitous in Vietnamese cooking, and always served with duck and dog.

VN: Star shaped fruit, eaten both unripe with Table greens, or as a souring agent in soups and stews, or fully ripened as a sweet snack. Technically, there are two kinds: a yellow variety, and its more sour green cousin.

VN: Large oval pods, about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long, with ridged brown exterior, tasting slightly of camphor. Use whole to flavor soups, such as in Pho. Known also as “bastard” cardamon. Crush lightly to expose its sticky black seeds, adding its entirety to soups and wet marinades. Remove the skin when grinding with other spices. Do not confuse with the miniature Chinese lantern-shaped cardamom pods used in Indian cooking.

Although there are a myriad variety of chilies, three basic sizes predominate in the Thai kitchen: small, medium and long. The small bird’s eye variety averages less than 1 inch (2 1/2 cm) in length (its descriptive Thai name is “rat turd”). It is the hottest of all, so use accordingly.

VN: Vietnamese food is not particularly fiery, although fresh and pickled chilies are served at table to season dishes individually. Mild, long, finger-thick chilies are most common. Medium serrano-length chilies flavor dishes with more heat, especially in the southern and central regions. As seeds are the hottest part of the chili, remove to decrease piquancy. The tiny ot hiem chilies are the hottest.

Made from the relatively-mild long chilli, Thai chili powder is not as piquant as cayenne pepper, nor is it equivalent to Mexican chili powder, which is a combination of herbs and spices. When unavailable, use chili flakes (malet prik), using an electric coffee grinder, or a mortar and pestle, to pulverize.

VN: A slightly thick, bright orange-red sauce made with crushed chilies, vinegar, garlic and sugar. It is a standard table condiment, both in soup and with grilled meats. Do not substitute with Tabasco, unless decreasing its quantity to a few drops.

Straggly and sparse in appearance compared to standard celery, Chinese celery is also a darker green and more pronounced in flavor. Use both stems and leaves.

These flat-sprouting chive have a distinct garlic odor. Standard chives, or even scallions are similar, but not as pronounced in flavor or aroma. Do not substitute woody flowering chives.

VN: Flat, dark green shoots, similar in length -- but not width -- to standard chives. Its smell is akin to garlic. The bottom 1 inch or so (2.5 cm) is discarded. Flowering chives are also popular, but these round, woody stems are cooked like a vegetable, not served raw as a herb.

The fresh leaf, stem and root of the coriander plant. The strong tasting roots are pounded in curry pastes, although stems may substitute. Leaves are a standard garnish. Not to be confused with coriander seed. Also known as Chinese parsley.

VN: The fresh leaf, stem and root of the coriander plant. Both the stem and leaves are used. Not to be confused with coriander seed. Also known as Chinese parsley.

Cordyceps, or Yarchagumba, are more expensive than gold, placing them well above pricey saffron, let alone cloves. Appropriate to its Chinese translation “winter worm, summer grass”, this fusion of fungus and caterpillar grows only on the high Tibetan plateau, and wags refer to at as “Himalayan Viagra”. (Ironically, it most resembles a dried up worm.) Aficionados relish it for increasing stamina, not to mention imparting a subtly delicious flavor to chicken soup.
Cultivation is painstaking, in one of the world’s least hospitable terrains. But its caterpillar lifecycle that is especially unique, beginning life as a moth larva burrowed into earth. Over long winter hibernation a parasitic yellow-brown fungus grows atop, resulting in a fusion of twig and half larva.
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The dried berries of the coriander plant. Used widely in both Western and Eastern cooking, coriander seeds impart a slight lemon quality to curry paste.

A thick paste combining the khong sot, or wet ingredients, with dried spices or khong heng. Make your own, or purchase commercially-made pastes, preferably refrigerated or frozen, or in plastic tubs or cryovac bags. Canned and bottled curry pastes do not have the same freshness. Curry pastes must be cooked, and never eaten as a condiment.

VN: Standard Ridge or "American" cucumbers are about 8 inches (20 cm) long, and 2 inches (5 cm) thick, dark green color, shiny skin. Seeds are generally removed before eating; peeling is optional. Telegraph or hot house cucumbers can substitute.

VN: Feather of baby dill is a French introduction, but one embraced wholeheartedly, such as in the famed fish dish Cha ca. Remove tough central stem. Do not confuse with pickling dill, or fennel.

Lauded as the king of fruit, durian tastes like heaven but smells like hell. The interior is creamy like a custard apple/cherimoya. Heavy and expensive, the fruit is harvested at the top of tall trees, then thrown down to two workers holding a hessian or burlap bag to catch, as in a hammock. This prevents the fruit from bruising and splitting upon hitting ground, but as the average weight is well over a kilo and often twice that, and the fruit is spiked, it makes for a dangerous profession. There are medical injunctions against drinking while eating durian.
Durian's strong smell makes it a prohibited import in most Asian hotels, and its smell exacerbates when kept indoors, or confined space.

1. There are three primary eggplants used in Thai cooking. Small pea like eggplants (makua puang) are surprisingly bitter, but their flavor actually helps meld the diverse tastes in a sauce. When pea eggplants are unavailable, omit.

2. Round or golf-ball sized variety makua bprawh comes in shades from white to pale green, and yellow when old. Although the larger round eggplants are not bitter, they resemble the small pea variety in firm texture. Both are consequently favored in soupy dishes and sauces.

3. Long green eggplants (makua yao) come up to 12 inches (30 cm) long. The softer long green eggplants are commonly stir fried. Standard purple eggplant of the West substitutes for all but the tiny pea variety.

Also known as sawtooth coriander because of its taste similarity to cilantro (fresh coriander). These long thin leaves, with a ridged edge, commonly flavor beef dishes, and strong smelling variety meats (offal). They are also eaten raw as a meal accompaniment or in salads. When unavailable, substitute with cilantro (fresh coriander).

VN: Similar in taste to cilantro (fresh coriander), with long ridge-edged leaves. Especially delicious with fish and in sour tamarind dishes.

VN: Made from the fermented extract of salted small fish or sprats, naturally-brewed, acrid smelling fish sauce is the mainstay of Vietnamese cookery. It is used both in the kitchen and as a table condiment, especially when diluted and combined variously with lemon, chilies and sugar to make the ubiquitous Nuoc cham dipping sauce. Vietnamese and Thai-style fish sauces differ slightly.

youtube video: Fish Sauce Production

Refers to greater galingale, a floral smelling, pinkish-colored rhizome related to ginger. One of the fundamental Thai flavors, galingale is thinly sliced and added to soups or in curry pastes. It is sometimes known as Laos powder, although in powdered form it requires soaking prior to use, and is rather insipid. When unavailable, use fresh ginger.

Bulbs of dried garlic ensure fresher flavor than pastes and dried flakes or powders. Do not substitute. White and reddish-hued garlics are suitable, although the large elephant garlic is probably too mild in flavor. Generally, the smaller the bulbs, the stronger the taste. The standard size of garlic cloves used are about the size of an almond.

VN: Beige to golden colored rhizome. Older ginger is more fibrous yet pungent. During summer, source a tender young ginger for garnishes, such as julienne strips. It is identifiable from its thin parchment like skin. Powdered or dry ginger is also popular, especially in the south.

The small nobly fruit of the kaffir lime tree. Unlike standard lime, little if any juice squeezes from the fruit; rather, it is the pared peel that flavors dishes. When unavailable, use standard lime or lemon zest, using only the outside colored peel or zest, and not any bitter white pith.

Identifiable by its double helix leaf, fragrant kaffir lime leaves are fundamental to Thai cooking. Tough, they are added for flavor, not texture, and when eaten, they should be sliced paper thin. Coarsely torn leaves are commonly added to soups, and pounded into curry pastes. If unavailable, use tender young fresh orange, lemon or lime leaves. Sometimes available frozen, which is preferable to dried.

Long, thin rhizome with a subtle, almost medicinal flavor. Often mistaken for “lesser galingale,” which is different in taste and appearance Also called “lesser ginger.” Not commonly available fresh, except in Asia, bottled or pickled krachai tastes insipid by comparison.

VN: Both baby- and standard-sized leeks are used, but only the white section. Substitute with Welsh onion, or whole scallions (green onion). Sweet pickled leek (cu kieu) are made from miniature leeks, and are available at Asian grocers. These are a common table accompaniment.

THAI: Citronella-like lemongrass is a Thai mainstay. The tough green stalks both color drinks and flavor tea, while the bottom one-third white portion is of principal culinary worth. Add to soups and curry pastes. To store, stand upright in 1 inch (2.5 cm) water, or in the refrigerator for up to 2 weeks.

VN: The tough green leaves or shoots of citronella-like lemongrass both color drinks and flavor tea, while the bottom one-third stalk, or white portion, is of principal culinary worth. To store, stand upright in 1 inch (2.5 cm) water, or in the refrigerator for up to 2 weeks.

VN: Soft leaves, such as red leaf (coral/lollo rossa), oak leaf and especially butter/Boston lettuces (rau diep), are essential paring to the Vietnamese meal, along with sprouts and assorted herbs. Crisp iceberg or head lettuce is less popular.

VN: Slightly resembling chickpeas, dried lotus seeds are commonly added to soups and stews for a nutty crunch, or served sweetened. Soak briefly to facilitate removing the bitter green shoot from its center, then boil until tender.

VN: Large, voluptuous leaves from the aquatic lotus plant. These are commonly used to wrap foods, imbuing a slight chestnut flavor to various dishes, from fried rice to Tet sticky-rice “cake” Banh Chung.

Fresh lotus is available from May to September in Vietnam, but dried leaves are more commonly sold overseas.

VN: Fresh mint is essential to Vietnamese cooking. Sprightly oval and mottle-leafed peppermint is particularly popular as a table green, while the more delicate arrow-shaped spearmint less so.

VN: The ubiquitous and slightly fiery polygonum is often -- but not always -- identified by its smudge-like blotch in the leaf’s center, and its distinct mint tang. Its color ranges from green to purple. It is occasionally called hot mint, laksa leaf, and Vietnamese basil, although it is actually related to neither mint nor basil.

VN: These are the same beans used to grow bean sprouts. Dried mung beans, or gram, range from green to yellow to black. Substitute slightly larger azuki, or even dried soy-, black (turtle) beans, or black eyed peas.

VN: Dried shiitake mushrooms are actually dark grey to brown, available in varying grades from Oriental shops. (Those with dark caps and deep, ivory-coloured creases are particularly valued.) The flavor is more pronounced than fresh. Soak in hot water for about 20 minutes, and discard the tough stems. Reserve the soaking water to flavor stock.

Available both fresh and dried, trim the tough stems before using. Dried fungus must be soaked and rinsed thoroughly.
Textural with little taste, it absorbs flavors during cooking.

VN: Available both fresh and dried, trim the tough white core before using. Dried fungus must be soaked and rinsed thoroughly. Textural, with little taste, it absorbs flavors during cooking. Also known as “wood ear mushrooms.”

Identifiable by their closed umbrella top, straw mushrooms are sold canned or dried, and occasionally fresh. When using canned mushrooms, halve the quantity.

Also known as bean thread vermicelli or glass noodles, these are commonly made from mung bean starch. Unlike rice noodles, they are pliable rather than brittle, and are extremely tough. Consequently, purchase in small packages or bundles, and not in large commercial size. Soak in cold water to soften, cut, then briefly immerse in boiling water. A subsequent cold water bath stops the cooking process. In spite of their apparent resilience, prepare them at the last minute, to preserve a springy texture.

VN: Also known as bean thread vermicelli or glass noodles, these thin noodles are commonly made from mung bean starch, and are extremely tough, not brittle. Buy in small parcels and soak prior to cutting.

Sold fresh in Asia, rice noodles, especially the thinner versions, are more commonly dried in other countries. Although interchangeable, dried noodles should be soaked for 10 minutes in cold water, then drained before using. Use fresh noodles directly from the pack.

VN: Dried bun, or rice vermicelli is very fine, commonly available in a thin and even thinner girth. Available fresh in Vietnam, but dried overseas.
NB: Rice noodles, served at room temperature, readily take the place of steamed rice, especially at breakfast and lunch, when one course meals are the norm. Use fresh noodles directly from the pack, as they are already cooked, and require no further care. Generally, the thicker sizes are used in soups.

Banh hoi: Is an even finer, angel-hair rice noodle variety sold dried in skeins swirled into square cakes. It often accompanies grilled meats.
Banh pho: This rice noodle is the preferred sort for Pho, available fresh and dried in three widths. The thinnest is about 1/16 inch (0.1 cm) wide.

VIETNAM: Hu tieu: Or “rice sticks,” are made with rice starch, often also blended with tapioca starch to make them more durable. Use them both in soups, or in Chinese-style stir fries. Available dried.

An egg and wheat noodle -- about 1/10 inch/2mm thick -- popular in Khao Soi, or Chiang Mai Noodles. Usually sold fresh, although dried versions also available; do not pre-soak, rather boil until tender in a separate batch of water and drain.

VN: Noodles, wheat or egg (mi):

A thin to medium-wide egg and/or wheat noodle. Sold both fresh (refrigerated) and dried. Unlike rice noodles, do not pre-soak; rather boil until tender in a separate batch of water and drain. Less common than rice noodles, they are used in some soups, such as lau fire pots or steamboats, and in Chinese-style stir-fry.

Judging from the shelves of a Thai supermarket, both palm oil and soy bean oil are the principal -- and cheapest -- cooking oils. Better yet, use sunflower or corn oil, or any good quality vegetable oil. (The pronounced aroma of Asian peanut oil may be too strong.) Do not use sesame oil unless specified. Thais do not cook with olive oil. Formerly, they used lard.

Long, ribbon width leaves imbuing a fragrant aroma and taste. Used especially to flavor sweets, the green pandan color is popular throughout Asia, not only in drinks but also to tint Western-style sponge cake.

Unripe or green papaya (as well as mango) is grated and tossed into a salad. On its own it tastes astringent , but when blended with other ingredients, such as a fish sauce dressing, it becomes deliciously crunchy like a tart apple.

VN: Available in both red and green varieties, although the red type prevails in Vietnam. Perilla is the common shisho leaf of Japanese cookery, with size ranging from 1 1/4-4 inches (3-10 cm). It is related to both basil and mint, hence its wonderful adaptability. Mandatory pairing with green papaya salad.

VN: Because of its heavy-flowering top, this is sometimes sold as “Crab claw herb.” Slightly tart, it is the small green oval leaves that are most prized.

Finely ground white pepper is common to Thai dishes, especially in stir-fries. Because black pepper tends to have a stronger taste, its use is largely confined to curry paste. Pepper grinders are not common in Thailand, consequently white pepper is sold finely ground but black as whole peppercorns.

Green peppercorns are immature, un-dried berries or fruit of the pepper vine. Available canned and in jars from gourmet shops, try to source clumped berries fresh on the stem. Not only is their taste better, but they are easier to remove from dishes when their hot taste proves too overpowering. When using canned peppercorns, halve the quantity.

Shiny, dark green leaves about the size of ivy. Sometimes known as “pepper leaf,” although mild in taste. Commonly eaten raw, but also cooked in curries, or blanched as a vegetable.

VN: Shiny, dark green leaves about the size of ivy. It is innocuously mild. Add to stir-fries at the last minute, or boil as a vegetable. Use raw piper leaves to wrap individual portions of ground meat destined for char-grilling, or conversely, to enfold bite-sized pieces of cooked meats. When unavailable, substitute fresh perilla or blanched grape vines.

A surprisingly delicious vegetable commonly used in Thai cooking. The deep orange to red flesh of the nobly and mottled fuk tan pumpkin is used in curries, stir fries, and even as a sweet.

Use any Halloween-style pumpkin, or alternatively a firm textured winter squash, such as butternut -, acorn- or golden nugget squash.

Rice is the mainstay of the Thai diet, and no meal complete without the presence of this grain. When long grain Jasmine rice (khao hom mali) is steamed, it literally means “beautiful rice,” (khao suey). With a fragrant aroma reminiscent of the mali flower, it is the principal grain of Thailand.

VN: The principal sort is long grain Jasmine (gau thom), although sticky (glutinous) rice is also popular. Rice is the mainstay of the Vietnamese diet, and no meal complete without its presence, either as rice noodles or steamed grain.

VN: Thin, almost transparent rice sheets made from a batter steamed directly on a stretched cloth. Served plain, or rolled and stuffed. Fresh variants also exist with shrimp and chives cooked directly in the batter.

VN: Very thin and brittle sheets made from ground rice amylase, and sometime tapioca starch. First steamed on a cloth, similar to banh cuon, the sheets are then dried on bamboo mats in the sun. Rice sheets require brief softening prior to use, and can be eaten both raw, as in Fresh spring rolls, or fried. Two stardard sizes are about 6 inches (15 cm) and 9 inches (23 cm) diameter.

In some regions sticky or glutinous rice (khao niew) is the mainstay. Slightly smaller in size and more chalky in appearance, it is soaked for hours prior to steaming over water. Eaten with the hands, sticky rice, as its name implies, clings solidly.

Black rice, also a sticky variety, is generally relegated to dessert dishes like Black Sticky Rice Pudding. Soaking prior to use belies its color: the rice is actually deep purple. Usually soaked then steamed, or sometimes boiled as a gruel-like pudding. It is eaten as a staple in parts of Indonesia.

THAI: Made from both sticky (glutinous) and long grain rice, this is a base for Asian cakes and dough. Rice starch is a slightly finger grade than commercial “ground rice,” although interchangeable. An even coarser grade of lightly toasted hand ground rice is also called for in these recipes.

VN: Various varieties of rice starch are made from the amylase of both sticky (glutinous) and standard white rice. Unlike true flour, rice starch feels silky to the touch. Bot gao te/bot be tinh khiet, made from standard grain white rice, is the basis for batters like ban xeo crepes. Bot gao nep, or sticky rice flour, is the base for myriad dumplings, cakes and dough. Do not use to thicken sauces.

VN: Small green leaves with a cumin scent and sharp citrus taste.

VN: Angel-hair like strands of grey to tan seaweed. Seaweed comes dried, packaged in cellophane. Soak prior, and rinse very well.

Resembling clustered tiny onions, shallots come both brown or gold, and more commonly in Thailand, pink to purple. There is also an elephantine variety, confusingly called “golden shallot.” As with garlic, larger bulbs taste milder than smaller cloves.

VN: Shallots, brown and pink:

Resembling clustered tiny onions, these dried bulbs come pink to purple, but most commonly in Vietnam, brown to golden. They range anywhere from 1/8-1/4 oz (2-5 g).

Small dried shrimp come un-refrigerated. They are added as is, or optionally soaked briefly in warm water, drained, then thrown into myriad dishes. Either omit entirely, or substitute chopped fresh or canned shrimp.

VN: Small dried shrimp come un-refrigerated. They make a quick base for soup, or soaked briefly in warm water, drained, then thrown into myriad dishes, from stir fries to salads.

A pungent, darkly colored, hard paste made from fermented prawn.

Only a small amount is needed to flavor curry pastes and dipping sauces. When unavailable, delete or use anchovy paste.

VN: Although they differ in thickness, north Vietnam’s ruoc and its southern counterpart mam tom differ in thickness. Both are extremely pungent. Substitute a premium Chinese shrimp sauce, or scrapings from dried blocks of Asian shrimp paste (balichan), or Western anchovy paste.

Fermented and mashed soy beans, flavored with salt, sugar and wheat. Use in cooking, not as a table condiment. Thai paste is light brown, sold both in jars and less practically in bottles; Chinese varieties are darker, sweeter and may contain sesame oil. When unavailable, use salted soy beans.

Sour and fermented fish is a mainstay of the Southeast Asian diet, especially inland areas where protein is scarce as a dietary essential.
Sour fish differs from standard fermented or putrified fish in several ways, but especially because it is fresher and the flesh has not deteriorated.
Fresh fish is left with sticky rice to ferment and literally sour. The resulting meat is then cooked, typically fried, although some regional variants incorporate it raw into fermented sauces and chutney- or sambal-like table condiments.

Principally used in vegetarian dishes when fish sauce is inappropriate, soy sauce also imparts a more robust flavor to stir fries (especially those with a Chinese influence). Available in light, dark and sweet (thick) varieties, or generically as “soy sauce."

VN: A five-pointed pod with a aniseed flavor. It marries well with beef, especially in broth or slow-simmered dishes, and when ground, is a major component of Five spice powder Use whole.

VN: The stalk of the sugarcane plant is rich is sweet nectar -- the basis of granulated white sugar, as well as a refreshing liquid beverage. A sharp machete and manual dexterity are both needed to hack sugarcane into practicable pieces. Conveniently, canned sugar cane pieces are available at Oriental groceries.

Tan colored palm sugar comes both gooey soft and in hard mounds. The soft sugar is used principally in savory dishes, and hard mounds in desserts. The tapioca binding in hard palm sugar also helps thicken sauces. Often palm sugar is blended with cane sugar, cheapening its cost. When unavailable, use an equivalent quantity white sugar or firmly packed light brown sugar.

While sticky sweet tamarind pods flood the markets of Thailand, the paste and puree are very sour. Sold both in block form paste, which requires dilution in hot water and straining, more convenient are the commercially-available tamarind purees and water.

VN: The tart and sour pulp of the tamarind pod. Easiest to use is commercial tamarind puree, available at many supermarkets. Thinner tamarind water is available at Indian and Middle Eastern grocers. To make, soak dried tamarind pulp in boiling water, then strain. Because there can be a difference in sourness between commercial and home-made puree, quantities required are variable. Sweet tamarind pods are also available, but inappropriate here.

Made from the cassava root, it is used like flour as in steamed banana cake for chewiness and sheen, to thicken sauces, or to coat meat prior to cooking. Substitute with arrowroot or corn starch (corn flour)

VN: The long, hollow shoot attaching the leaf of the taro plant colocasia gigantea. Sometimes called “Vietnamese rhubarb” and "elephant ear", its taste is rather innocuous, but its crunch delicious. European rhubarb is not similar. Caution: some varieties of taro are toxic. Only purchase from knowledgeable Oriental greengrocers. Also known in Japanese as zuiki. The most similar substitute is water lilly stems.

Both firm soy bean curd and soft or silken tofu are used in Thai cooking. Use the delicate tofu in soups and broths, and firm tofu in more rigorous stir fries.

These are known as the local "truffle" tough skin, earthy interior. An underground mushroom by origin, vs puffball, which is any mushroom of a round shape grown above ground.

Like galingale and ginger, fresh turmeric is a rhizome which grows underground like a root. Its flavor is more pronounced than turmeric powder. In Thailand, it is commonly used to counter the smell in fish dishes.

VN: Like galingale and ginger, fresh turmeric is a rhizome which grows underground. Used extensively in Vietnamese cooking, it is grated, then soaked, using both its water and pulp. (Caution: wear gloves when preparing fresh turmeric, lest it stain.) For turmeric powder, ideally choose the darker alleppey variety, instead of milder Madras turmeric. Its flavor is closer to the fresh rhizome.

Sour and astringent fruits are widely used, both cooked and raw. These include under-ripe pineapple and green mango, plus starfruit. Substitute tart apples, and under-ripe prunes, plums, grapes and apricots. Pomello is preferred over bitter grapefuit. Both green papaya and green banana are deliciously astringent. Other souring agents include lemon and lime juice, tamarind and rice vinegar.

Spices:

The five basic spices of northern Vietnamese cookery are black pepper, star anise, cinnamon, ginger powder and the large pods of brown cardamom. Southern cooking favors cloves, chili powder and curry powder or dried turmeric.